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In a behavioral model of civil conflict, foreign military intervention alters the resources available to warring groups and their probability of winning. The model highlights the importance of distributional measures along with the modifying effect of the intervention for conflict incidence. The paper confirms empirically the finding in the literature that ethnic polarization is a robust predictor of civil war, but it also finds evidence that religious polarization is positively and significantly associated with civil conflict in the presence of foreign military intervention of non-humanitarian and non-neutral nature. Such external interventions exacerbate religious polarization, leading to high-intensity conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa region, but not in the rest of the world. These results suggest that, unlike in the rest of the world, where civil conflicts are mostly about a public prize linked to ethnic polarization, in the Middle East and North Africa they are mostly about a sectarian-related public prize. The results are robust to allowing different definitions of conflict, model specifications, and data time spans, and to controlling for other types of foreign military interventions.

Polarization. --- Civil war. --- Social conflict. --- Military policy --- International cooperation.

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Arms race --- Economic aspects. --- Developing countries --- Developing countries --- Armed Forces --- Appropriations and expenditures. --- Military policy.

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International relations. Foreign policy --- Polemology --- United States --- Europe --- World politics --- Military relations --- Foreign relations --- Military policy --- Military policy. --- World politicsUnited States --- United StatesMilitary relations --- 327.0 --- Internationale politiek: algemeenheden --- 2001-2009 --- 1995-2005 --- World politics - 1995-2005 --- United States - Military relations - Europe --- Europe - Military relations - United States --- United States - Foreign relations - Europe --- Europe - Foreign relations - United States --- United States - Military policy --- United States - Foreign relations - 2001 --- -327.0 --- -World politics --- United States of America

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Administrative law --- Belgium --- National security --- Soldiers --- Sécurité nationale --- Militaires --- Law and legislation --- Civil rights --- Droit --- Droits --- Belgium. --- Belgique --- Military policy --- Defenses --- Politique militaire --- Défense nationale --- E-books

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This book examines Arctic defense policy and military security from the perspective of all eight Arctic states. In light of climate change and melting ice in the Arctic Ocean, Canada, Russia, Denmark (Greenland), Norway and the United States, as well as Iceland, Sweden and Finland, are grappling with an emerging Arctic security paradigm. This volume brings together the world's most seasoned Arctic political-military experts from Europe and North America to analyze how Arctic nations are adapting their security postures to accommodate increased shipping, expanding naval presence, and energy and mineral development in the polar region. The book analyzes the ascent of Russia as the first 'Arctic superpower', the growing importance of polar security for NATO and the Nordic states, and the increasing role of Canada and the United States in the region.

Security, International --- Sécurité internationale --- Arctic regions --- Arctique --- Military policy. --- Strategic aspects. --- Politique militaire --- Aspect stratégique --- Military policy --- AA / International- internationaal --- RU / Russia - Rusland - Russie --- CA / Canada --- NO / Norway - Noorwegen - Norvège --- IS / Iceland - Ijsland - Islande --- 327.0 --- 355 --- 385.320 --- Internationale politiek: algemeenheden. --- Milieu --- Vervoer over zee: algemeenheden. --- 385.320Internationale politiek: algemeenheden. --- Sécurité internationale --- Aspect stratégique --- Internationale politiek: algemeenheden --- Vervoer over zee: algemeenheden --- Social Sciences --- Political Science --- Security, International - Arctic regions --- Arctic regions - Military policy --- Collective security --- International security --- International relations --- Disarmament --- International organization --- Peace --- Arctic --- Arctic Ocean Region --- Arctic, The --- Far North --- The Arctic --- Polar regions